References : Epilepsy.com/Professionals

WHO IS EPILEPSY.COM/PROFESSIONALS

DONATE

References

1. Alvarez N, Besag F, Iivanainen M. Use of antiepileptic drugs in the treatment of epilepsy in people with intellectual disability. J Intellect Disabil Res 1998;42:1–15.

2. Goulden KJ, Shinnar S, Koller H, et al. Epilepsy in children with mental retardation: a cohort study. Epilepsia 1991;32:690–697.

3. Forsgren L, Edvinsson SO, Blomquist HK, et al. Epilepsy in a population of mentally retarded children and adults. Epilepsy Res 1990;6:234–248.

4. Forsgren L, Edvinsson SO, Nystrom L, Blomquist HK. Influence of epilepsy on mortality in mental retardation: an epidemiologic study. Epilepsia 1996;37:956–963.

5. Steffenburg U, Hedstrom A, Lindroth A, et al. Intractable epilepsy in a population-based series of mentally retarded children. Epilepsia 1998;39:767–775.

6. Mariani E, Ferini-Strambi L, Sala M, et al. Epilepsy in institutionalized patients with encephalopathy: clinical aspects and nosological considerations. Am J Ment Retard 1993;98[Suppl]:27–33.

7. Gastaut H. The Lennox-Gastaut syndrome: comments on the syndrome’s terminology and nosological position amongst the secondary generalized epilepsies of childhood. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol Suppl 1982;35:71–84.

8. Gibbs F, Gibbs E, Lennox W. Influence of blood sugar level on wave and spike formation in petit mal epilepsy. Arch Neurol Psychiatry 1939;41:1111.

9. Gibbs F, Davis H, Lennox W. Electroencephalogram in epilepsy and in conditions of impaired consciousness. Arch Neurol Psychiatry 1935;34:1133.

10. Lennox W. The petit mal epilepsies: their treatment with tridione. JAMA 1945;129:1069–1074.

11. Lennox WG, Davis JP. Clinical correlates of the fast and the slow spike-wave electroencephalogram. Pediatrics 1950;5:626–644.

12. Lennox W. Epilepsy and Related Disorders, vol 1. Boston: Little, Brown, 1960.

13. Doose H. Das akinetische Petit Mal. Arch Psychiatr Nervenkr 1964;205:625–654.

14. Sorel L. L’epilepsie myokinetique grave de la premiere enfance avec pointe-onde lente (petit mal variant) et son traitement. Rev Neurol 1964;110:215–233.

15. Commission on Classification and Terminology of the International League Against Epilepsy. Proposal for revised classification of epilepsies and epileptic syndromes. Epilepsia 1989;30:389–399.

16. Beaumanoir A, Dravet C. The Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. In J Roger, M Bureau, C Dravet, et al. (eds), Epileptic Syndromes in Infancy, Childhood and Adolescence. London: John Libbey, 1992;115–132.

17. Farrell K. Classifying epileptic syndromes: problems and a neurobiologic solution. Neurology 1993;43: S8–11.

18. Aicardi J. Epileptic syndromes in childhood. Epilepsia 1988;29:S1–5.

19. Livingston JH. The Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. Dev Med Child Neurol 1988;30:536–540.

20. Dulac O, N'Guyen T. The Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. Epilepsia 1993;34:S7–17.

21. Ohtahara S. Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. Considerations in its concept and categorization. Jpn J Psychiatry Neurol 1988;42:535–542.

22. Oguni H, Hayashi K, Osawa M. Long-term prognosis of Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. Epilepsia 1996; 37:44–47.

23. Trevathan E, Murphy CC, Yeargin-Allsopp M. Prevalence and descriptive epidemiology of Lennox-Gastaut syndrome among Atlanta children. Epilepsia 1997;38:1283–1288.

24. Yaqub BA. Electroclinical seizures in Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. Epilepsia 1993;34:120–127.

25. Aicardi J. Epilepsy in children. In PG Procopis, I Rapin (eds), The International Review of Child Neurology. New York: Raven Press, 1994.

26. Kaminska A, Ickowicz A, Plouin P, et al. Delineation of cryptogenic Lennox-Gastaut syndrome and myoclonic astatic epilepsy using multiple correspondence analysis. Epilepsy Res 1999;36:15–29.

27. Ohtsuka Y, Amano R, Mizukawa M, Ohtahara S. Long- term prognosis of the Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. Jpn J Psychiatry Neurol 1990;44:257–264.

28. Roger J, Dravet C, Bureau M. The Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. Cleve Clin J Med 1989;56:S172–180.

29. Smeraldi E, Scorza Smeraldi R, Cazzullo CL, et al. Immunogenetics of the Lennox-Gastaut syndrome: frequency of HL-A antigens and haplotypes in patients and first-degree relatives. Epilepsia 1975;16:699–703.

30. van Engelen BG, de Waal LP, Weemaes CM, Renier WO. Serologic HLA typing in cryptogenic Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. Epilepsy Res 1994;17:43–47.

31. Theodore WH, Rose D, Patronas N, et al. Cerebral glucose metabolism in the Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. Ann Neurol 1987;21:14–21.

32. Chugani HT, Mazziotta JC, Engel J Jr, Phelps ME. The Lennox-Gastaut syndrome: metabolic subtypes determined by 2-deoxy-2[18F]fluoro-D-glucose positron emission tomography. Ann Neurol 1987;21:4–13.

33. Hauser WA. The prevalence and incidence of convulsive disorders in children. Epilepsia 1994;35[Suppl 2]:S1–6.

34. Kramer U, Nevo Y, Neufeld MY, et al. Epidemiology of epilepsy in childhood: a cohort of 440 consecutive patients. Pediatr Neurol 1998;18:46–50.

35. Prats JM, Garaizar C. [Etiology of epilepsy in adolescents.] Rev Neurol 1999;28:32–35.

36. Beilmann A, Talvik T. Is the International League Against Epilepsy classification of epileptic syndromes applicable to children in Estonia? Eur J Paediatr Neurol 1999;3:265–272.

37. Cavazzuti GB. Epidemiology of different types of epilepsy in school age children of Modena, Italy. Epilepsia 1980;21:57–62.

38. Heiskala H. Community-based study of Lennox-Gas- taut syndrome. Epilepsia 1997;38:526–531.

39. Chevrie JJ, Aicardi J. Childhood epileptic encephalopathy with slow spike-wave. A statistical study of 80 cases. Epilepsia 1972;13:259–271.

40. Markand ON. Slow spike-wave activity in EEG and associated clinical features: often called “Lennox” or “Lennox-Gastaut” syndrome. Neurology 1977;27:746–757.

41. Ikeno T, Shigematsu H, Miyakoshi M, et al. An analytic study of epileptic falls. Epilepsia 1985;26:612–621.

42. Bare MA, Glauser TA, Strawsburg RH. Need for electroencephalogram video confirmation of atypical absence seizures in children with Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. J Child Neurol 1998;13:498–500.

43. Beaumanoir A. The Lennox-Gastaut syndrome: a personal study. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol Suppl 1982;35:85–99.

44. Roger J, Remy C, Bureau M, et al. [Lennox-Gastaut syndrome in the adult.] Rev Neurol 1987;143:401–405.

45. Ohtahara S, Ohtsuka Y, Kobayashi K. Lennox-Gastaut syndrome: a new vista. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 1995;49:S179–183.

46. Yagi K. Evolution of Lennox-Gastaut syndrome: a long-term longitudinal study. Epilepsia 1996;37:48–51.

47. Ohtsuka Y, Ohmori I, Oka E. Long-term follow-up of childhood epilepsy associated with tuberous sclerosis. Epilepsia 1998;39:1158–1163.

48. Mattson RH. Efficacy and adverse effects of established and new antiepileptic drugs. Epilepsia 1995; 36:S13–S26.

49. Jeavons P, Clark J, Maheshwari M. Treatment of generalized epilepsies of childhood and adolescence with sodium valproate (“Epilim”). Dev Med Child Neurol 1977;19:9–25.

50. Wheless JW, Constantinou JEC. Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. Pediatr Neurol 1997;17:203–211.

51. Farrell K. Secondary generalized epilepsy and Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. In: E Wyllie (ed), The Treatment of Epilepsy: Principles and Practice. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger, 1993;604–613.

52. Gastaut H, Lowe M. Antiepileptic properties of clobazam, a 1.5 benzodiazepine , in man. Epilepsia 1979; 20:437–446.

53. Snead OC, Saito M. Encephalopathic Epilepsy After Infancy. In: WE Dodson, JM Pellock (eds), Pediatric Epilepsy: Diagnosis and Therapy. New York: Demos Publications, 1993;147–156.

54. Sher P. Alternate day clonazepam treatment of intractable seizures. Arch Neurol 1985;42:787–788.

55. Bittencourt PR, Richens A. Anticonvulsant-induced status epilepticus in Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. Epilepsia 1981;22:129–134.

56. DiMario FJ Jr, Clancy RR. Paradoxical precipitation of tonic seizures by lorazepam in a child with atypical absence seizures. Pediatr Neurol 1988;4:249–251.

57. Snead O. Exacerbation of seizures in children by carbamazepine. N Engl J Med 1985;323:916–921.

58. Horn CS, Ater SB, Hurst DL. Carbamazepine-exacerbated epilepsy in children and adolescents. Pediatr Neurol 1986;2:340–345.

59. Erba G, Browne T. Atypical absence, myoclonic, atonic and tonic seizures and the "Lennox-Gastaut syndrome." In T Browne, R Feldman (eds), Epilepsy, Diagnosis and Management. Boston: Little, Brown, 1983;75–94.

60. Zouhar A, Slapal R. [Administration of high doses of B6 in age-related epileptic encephalopathies.] Cesk Neurol Neurochir 1989;52:28–31.

61. Bourgeois BFD. Antiepileptic drugs in pediatric practice. Epilepsia 1995;36:S34–S45.

62. Brett E. The Lennox-Gastaut syndrome: therapeutic aspects. In E Niedermeyer, R Degen (eds), The Lennox-Gastaut Syndrome. New York: Alan Liss, 1988; 317–339.

63. Yamatogi Y, Ohtsuka Y, Ishida T, et al. Treatment of the Lennox syndrome with ACTH: a clinical and electroencephalographic study. Brain Dev 1979;1:267–276.

64. Snead O, Benton J, Myers C. ACTH and prednisone in childhood seizure disorders. Neurology 1983;33:966–970.

65. Duse M, Notarangelo LD, Tiberti S, et al. Intravenous immune globulin in the treatment of intractable childhood epilepsy. Clin Exp Immunol 1996;104[Suppl 1]:71–76.

66. van Engelen BG, Renier WO, Weemaes CM, et al. High-dose intravenous immunoglobulin treatment in cryptogenic West and Lennox-Gastaut syndrome; an add-on study. Eur J Pediatr 1994;153:762–769.

67. Feucht M, Brantner-Inthaler S. Gamma-vinyl-GABA (vigabatrin) in the therapy of Lennox-Gastaut syndrome: an open study. Epilepsia 1994;35: 993–998.

68. Sakamoto K, Kurokawa T, Tomita S, et al. Effects of zonisamide on children with epilepsy. Curr Ther Res 1988;43(3):378–383.

69. van Rijckevorsel-Harmant K, Delire M, Rucquoy-Ponsar M. Treatment of idiopathic West and Lennox-Gastaut syndromes by intravenous administration of human polyvalent immunoglobulins. Eur Arch Psychiatry Neurol Sci 1986;236:119–122.

70. Gross-Tsur V, Shalev RS, Kazir E, et al. Intravenous high-dose gammaglobulins for intractable childhood epilepsy. Acta Neurol Scand 1993;88:204–209.

71. Ariizumi M, Baba K, Shiihara H. High dose gamma- globulin for intractable childhood epilepsy. Lancet 1983;2:162–163.

72. Illum N, Taudorf K, Heilmann C, et al. Intravenous immunoglobulin: a single-blind trial in children with Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. Neuropediatrics 1990;21:87–90.

73. van Rijckevorsel-Harmant K, Delire M, Schmitz-Moorman W, Wieser HG. Treatment of refractory epilepsy with intravenous immunoglobulins. Results of the first double-blind/dose finding clinical study. Int J Clin Lab Res 1994;24:162–166.

74. Livingston J, Beaumont D, Arzimanoglou A. Vigabatrin in the treatment of epilepsy in children. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1989;27:109S–112S.

75. Gibbs J, Appleton R, Rosenbloom L. Vigabatrin in intractable childhood epilepsy: a retrospective study. Pediatr Neurol 1992;8:338–340.

76. Luna D, Dulac O, Pajot N. Vigabatrin in the treatment of childhood epilepsies. A single-blind placebo-controlled study. Epilepsia 1989;30:430–437.

77. Fois A, Buoni S, Bartolo RD. Vigabatrin treatment in children. Childs Nerv Syst 1994;10:244–248.

78. Maldonado C, Castello J, Fuentes E. Vigabatrin in the management of Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. Epilepsia 1995;36:S102.

79. Dulac O, Chiron C, Luna D, et al. Vigabatrin in childhood epilepsy. J Child Neurol 1991;[Suppl 2]:S30–S37.

80. Pellock JM. New antiepileptic drugs in pediatric epilepsy syndromes. Pediatrics 1999;104:1106–1116.

81. Shields WD, Sankar R. Vigabatrin. Semin Pediatr Neurol 1997;4:43–50.

82. Appleton RE. Vigabatrin in the management of generalized seizures in children. Seizure 1995;4:45–48.

83. Sankar R, Wasterlain CG. Is the devil we know the lesser of two evils? Vigabatrin and visual fields. Neurology 1999;52:1537–1538.

84. Yamatogi Y, Ohtahara S. Current topics of treatment. In S Ohtahara, J Roger (eds), Proceedings of the International Symposium, New Trends in Pediatric Epileptology. Okayama 1991;136–148.

85. Prusinski A, Stepien-Barcikowska A. A trial of using tryptophan in the treatment of Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. Neurochir Polska 1984;18:287–289.

86. Slapal R, Zouhar A. [Therapeutic effect of dopaminergic substances in drug-resistant Lennox-Gastaut syndrome.] Cesk Neurol Neurochir 1989;52:32–35.

87. Inanaga K, Kumashiro H, Fukuyama Y, et al. Clinical study of oral administration of DN-1417, a TRH analog, in patients with intractable epilepsy. Epilepsia 989;30:438–445.

88. Ros Perez P, Zamarron Cuesta I, Aparicio Meix M, Sastre Gallego A. [Evaluation of the effectiveness of the ketogenic diet with medium-chain triglycerides, in the treatment of refractory epilepsy in children. Apropos of a series of cases.] An Esp Pediatr 1989;30:155–158.

89. Wheless J. The ketogenic diet: fa(c)t or fiction [editorial]. J Child Neurol 1995;10:419–423.

90. Freeman JM, Vining EP. Seizures decrease rapidly after fasting: preliminary studies of the ketogenic diet. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 1999;153:946–949.

91. Wheless J. Evaluation of children for epilepsy surgery. Pediatr Ann 1991;20:41–49.

92. Baumgartner J, Clifton G, Wheless J. Corpus callostomy. Tech Neurosurg 1995;1:45–51.

93. Chevrie J-J, Aicardi J. Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. In H Luders (ed), Epilepsy Surgery. New York: Raven Press, 1991:197–202.

94. Kwan SY, Wong TT, Chang KP, et al. Seizure outcome after corpus callosotomy: the Taiwan experience. Childs Nerv Syst 2000;16:87–92.

95. Hornig GW, Murphy JV, Schallert G, Tilton C. Left vagus nerve stimulation in children with refractory epilepsy: an update. South Med J 1997;90:484–488.

96. Ben-Menachem E, Hellstrom K, Waldton C, Augustinsson LE. Evaluation of refractory epilepsy treated with vagus nerve stimulation for up to 5 years. Neurology 1999;52:1265–1267.

97. Lundgren J, Amark P, Blennow G, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation in 16 children with refractory epilepsy. Epilepsia 1998;39:809–813.

98. Frost M, Gates J, Helmers SL, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation in children with refractory seizures associated with Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. Epilepsia 2001;42:1148–1152.

99. Hosain S, Harden C, Nikolov B, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation in children with symptomatic generalized epilepsy. Epilepsia 1999;40:125.

100. Tatum W, Ferriera J, Benbadis S, Vale F. Vagus nerve stimulation and antiepileptic drug reduction. Epilepsia 1999;40:223.

101. Lockman L, Rothner A, Erenberg G, et al. Cinromide in the treatment of seizures in the Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. Epilepsia 1980;22:241.

102. Group for the Evaluation of cinromide in the Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. Double-blind, placebo-controlled evaluation of cinromide in patients with the Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. Epilepsia 1989;30:422–429.

103. Ritter FJ. Efficacy of felbamate in childhood epileptic encephalopathy (Lennox-Gastaut syndrome). N Engl J Med 1993;328:29–33.

104. Jensen PK. Felbamate in the treatment of Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. Epilepsia 1994;35[Suppl 5]:S54–57.

105. Pellock JM. Felbamate. Epilepsia 1999;40:S57–62.

106. Patton W, Duffull S. Idiosyncratic drug-induced haematological abnormalities. Incidence, pathogenesis, management and avoidance. Drug Saf 1994;11:445–462.

107. Bourgeois BF. Felbamate. Semin Pediatr Neurol 1997;4:3–8.

108. Pellock JM, Brodie MJ. Felbamate: 1997 update. Epilepsia 1997;38:1261–1264.

109. Donaldson JA, Glauser TA, Olberding LS. Lamotrigine adjunctive therapy in childhood epileptic encephalopathy (the Lennox Gastaut syndrome). Epilepsia 1997;38:68–73.

110. Timmings PL, Richens A. Lamotrigine as an add-on drug in the management of Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. Eur Neurol 1992;32:305–307.

111. Schlumberger E, Chavez F, Palacios L, et al. Lamotrigine in treatment of 120 children with epilepsy. Epilepsia 1994;35:359–367.

112. Uvebrant P, Bauziene R. Intractable epilepsy in children. The efficacy of lamotrigine treatment, including non-seizure related benefits. Neuropediatrics 1994;25:284–289.

113. Buchanan N. Lamotrigine: clinical experience in 93 patients with epilepsy. Acta Neurol Scand 1995;92:28–32.

114. Eriksson AS, Nergardh A, Hoppu K. The efficacy of lamotrigine in children and adolescents with refractory generalized epilepsy: a randomized, double-blind, crossover study. Epilepsia 1998;39:495–501.

115. Motte J, Trevathan E, Arvidsson JF, et al. Lamotrigine for generalized seizures associated with the Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. N Engl J Med 1997;337:1807–1812.

116. Pellock JM. Overview of lamotrigine and the new antiepileptic drugs: the challenge. J Child Neurol 1997;12:S48–52.

117. Schlienger RG, Shapiro LE, Shear NH. Lamotrigine-induced severe cutaneous adverse reactions. Epilepsia 1998;39:S22–26.

118. Matsuo F. Lamotrigine. Epilepsia 1999;40:S30–36.

119. Sachdeo RC, Glauser TA, Ritter F, et al. A double- blind, randomized trial of topiramate in Lennox-Gas- taut syndrome. Neurology 1999;52:1882–1887.

120. Glauser TA, Levisohn PM, Ritter F, Sachdeo RC. Topiramate in Lennox-Gastaut syndrome: open-label treatment of patients completing a randomized controlled trial. Topiramate YL Study Group. Epilepsia 2000;41:S86–90.

121. Cook RJ, Sackett DL. The number needed to treat: a clinically useful measure of treatment effect BMJ 1995;310:452–454. [Erratum appears in BMJ 1995;310(6986):1056.]

122. Marson AG, Kadir ZA, Chadwick DW. New antiepileptic drugs: a systematic review of their efficacy and tolerability. BMJ 1996;313:1169–1174.

Adapted from: Glauser TA and Morita DA. Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. In: Devinsky O and Westbrook LE, eds. Epilepsy and Developmental Disabilities. Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann; 2001;65–78.
With permission from Elsevier (www.elsevier.com).
Reviewed May 2004 by Steven C. Schachter, MD, epilepsy.com Editorial Board.